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The position and
types of text included on a gendai print were also different. First, text
was written horizontally in the lower print border (prints 87-90) instead
of vertically in the side borders or in the picture area. Second, the
artist’s name was written most often (93%a) in the roman
alphabet (prints 87, 89, 90) instead of the Japanese syllabary (print 88). Third,
prints were usually (80%) given a title which was written in either the
Japanese (70%) syllabary (prints 88, 90) or the Roman (10%) alphabet. Fourth,
the year in which a print was made appeared on about half (51%) of the
prints (print 90). Fifth, two additional numbers, separated by a diagonal
line, appeared on most (85%) prints (prints 87, 88, 90). The number below
the diagonal line was the total number of copies made of the printb
and the number above the diagonal was the number assigned to a particular
copy of the print.
The publisher’s
logo which appeared on some shin hanga and ukiyo-e prints was absent from
gendai prints because the latter were published by the artistc.
Very few gendai artists (2%) added a poem to their prints (print 89).
Finally, more gendai bird prints had a white border (99%) than either
ukiyo-e (7%) or shin hanga (60%) bird prints. These changes reflected the
ever increasing influence of western art practices on Japanese bird
printmakers.
a Percentages are based a sample of 2410
gendai bird prints by 955 artists.Their names, signatures and examples of their work are included in Appendix 3a and Appendix 3b.
b Prints with a fixed number of copies are
often called limited-edition prints.
c The production of ukiyo-e and shin hanga
prints involved four people; first the artist who designed the print,
second the person who carved the artist’s design onto a block of wood,
third the person who added ink to the block and printed the design on
paper, and fourth the publisher who financed print production and marketed
finished prints. Gendai artists took control of all steps in the
printmaking process to maximize the opportunity for self-expression and
creativity at each step.
Picture Composition
The composition of a
gendai bird print tended to be simpler and (or) less realistic than that of
either a shin hanga or ukiyo-e bird print. This tendency likely reflected
the influence of western abstract and (or) surrealistic art on gendai
artists. Birds were unaccompanied in more gendai bird prints (14%) than
either shin hanga (4%) or ukiyo-e (0.5%) bird prints. In print 91 the
picture area was filled by a single, abstract owl and in print 92 by
multiple birds with simplified shapes.
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91 Unidentified owl (Family Strigidae) by
Minoru Yokota, 190 mm x 250 mm, intaglio print
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92 Cormorant (Phalacrocorax sp.) and
crane (Grus sp.) by Yō Sugano, 180 mm x 225 mm, intaglio
print entitled ancient birds
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Plants appeared in far fewer gendai bird prints
(51%) than in either shin hanga (86%) or ukiyo-e (88%) bird prints. The
decline in the number of flower-and-bird pictures is particularly striking
(i.e., 18% of gendai prints versus 53% of shin hanga prints and 66% of
ukiyo-e prints). Even when flowers were included in a gendai bird print
they were often relegated to the background as in print 93. For most gendai
artists, traditional Chinese and Japanese bird-and-flower art in which
flowers and birds were equally important was no longer an influence.
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93 Long-tailed tit (Aegithalos caudatus)
by Tadashi Ikai, 440 mm x 300 mm, intaglio print entitled flower field
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Gendai artists
also simplified plant shape. For example, only the flower petals of
plants were shown in print 93 and the tall grasses in print 94 had no
leaves.
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94 Common snipe (Gallinago gallinago)
by Sadao Satō, 410 mm x 340 mm, screenprint entitled a snipe
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Inanimate objects
such as water and rock also appeared in fewer gendai bird prints (18%) than
in either shin hanga (27%) or ukiyo-e (28%) bird prints. When they were
included their depiction could be more surrealistic than true-to-life. In
print 95 the true effect of reflected light on the color of water was
exaggerated by using shades of color that ranged from white to dark blue.
In print 96 a landscape of conical shapes was created that has no earthly
equivalent and is more likely to be seen when we have our eyes closed
(i.e., dreaming).
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95 Little egret (Egretta garzetta) by
Teruhiko Kondo, 400 mm x 305 mm, intaglio print entitled little egret
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96 Crane (Grus sp.) by Yūji
Watanabe, 715 mm x 575 mm, woodblock print entitled flying (star)
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Precipitation appeared much less often in gendai
bird prints (3%) than in either shin hanga (23%) or ukiyo-e (17%) bird
prints. Its infrequent appearance is surprising because some of the most
visually stunning gendai bird prints are those in which it is raining or
snowing. In print 97 rain helped to create the illusion of
three-dimensional space in a two-dimensional picture. Both the rain and
bird in the foreground are in focus while mountains in the background are fuzzy
as if being partly hidden by the rain. In print 98 the shapes of all
objects are indistinct, as we would see them when our vision was being
hampered by falling snow.
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97 Greater-spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos
major) by Hirokazu Fukuda, 325 mm x 250 mm, woodblock print entitled
gentle rain
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98 Penguin (Family Spheniscidae) by
Tōshi Yoshida, 640 mm x 305 mm, woodblock print entitled snowing
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The sun and moon appeared more often but were
drawn less realistically in gendai bird prints (17%) than in either shin
hanga (7%) or ukiyo-e (8%) bird prints. In gendai prints the sun was often
multicolored (print 99) instead of its true red or yellow and the size of
both the sun (print 101) and moon (print 100) were exaggerated. Gendai
artists were the first to include stars (print 100) in bird prints.
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99 Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) by
Nobuyoshi Koga, 140 mm x 200 mm, screenprint entitled greeting of love
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100 Scops owl (Otus sp.) by Makiko
Hattori, 190 mm x 240 mm, intaglio print entitled moonlight owl
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Man-made objects
accompanied birds in about the same percentage of gendai (7%), shin hanga
(5%) and ukiyo-e (5%) bird prints. However, the types of objects
differed. Modern inventions such as the power transmission tower (print
101) only appeared in gendai prints. The scene in print 101 was
relatively realistic compared to others in gendai prints that contained
man-made objects. For example, in print 102 exotic South American birds
were paired with a globe and the concorde jet whose nose cone included a
sharp pencil. In print 103 a collage of unrelated objects appeared behind
a pair of soaring seabirds. The novelty of these surreal scenes makes
them entertaining but also challenging to understand fully.
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101 Green pheasant (Phasianus versicolor)
by Fumiaki Mutō, 420 mm x 570 mm, digital print entitled pine and
green pheasant
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102 Four unidentified species of South
American birds by Gō Yayanagi, 450 mm x 455 mm, screenprint
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103 Short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria
albatrus) by Kōsuke Kimura, 400 mm x 440 mm, lithograph entitled
flight - H
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Birds were paired
with humans in more gendai bird prints (6%) than in either shin hanga
(0.1%) or ukiyo-e (3%) bird prints. This pairing took one of three forms.
In the most popular form either a single bird or more than one bird sat
on the head of a human, usually a young girl as in print 104. Less
frequently humans and birds stood side by side (print 105). Finally, in
rare cases a bird was shown impersonating a human as in print 106. None
of the birds depicted in these prints were symbolically associated with
humans in Japan so presumably gendai artists were simply being creative.
The diverse group of bird species shown in print 104 would never be found
together, even in the absence of humans. It is also unlikely that the
mountain climber shown in print 105 could get that close to the wary rock
ptarmigan. To make the connection between the dodo bird and Sherlock
Holmes in print 106 requires help from the artist.
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104 Multiple species of unidentified birds
by Shiho Murakami, 100 mm x 150 mm, intaglio print
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105 Rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) by
Umetarō Azechi, 125 mm x 110 mm, woodblock print
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106 Dodo bird (Raphus cucullatus) by
Hideshi Yoshida, 150 mm x 150 mm, wood engraved print entitled Sherlock
Dodo
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Bird Species Chosen
for Depiction
Gendai artists chose a
wide rangea of bird species to depict. Their most popular
choices, shown below, belonged to the following five bird families: (1)
owls (34%b), (2) geese and swans (23%), (3) fowl (22%), (4)
cranes (16%) and (5) doves (13%). Three of these families (i.e., geese and
swans, fowl, cranes) were also among the top five families chosen by both
shin hanga and ukiyo-e artists. The other two families (i.e., owls and
doves) replaced sparrows and egrets plus herons chosen by shin hanga
artists and sparrows and hawks plus falcons chosen by ukiyo-e artists. The
extreme popularity of owls with gendai artists is very surprising for two
reasons. First, owls are not well known by most people because they are
active at night instead of during the day when they hide from view. Second,
until recently owls have had a negative symbolic association (i.e., with
ingratitudec). Today in Japan owls are associated with good luckd
and protection from hardship which may explain why they now appear more
often in Japanese art. The popularity of doves is less surprising. They are
common in both urban and suburban settings throughout Japan and they have a
positive rather than negative symbolic association (i.e., messenger of the
peace god in Japanese mythology).
a 162 species from 66 families were depicted
in the 2410 gendai bird prints examined.
b percentage of gendai artists whose chose
a bird from a particular family
c The association of owls with ingratitude
is based on the false far-eastern belief that young owls will kill and eat
their parents.
d Since the 1950s owls have been
considered to be symbols of good luck and protection from hardship. These
associations are based on similarities between a Japanese name for owls
(i.e., fukurō) and the words for luck (fuku) and no (fu) hardship (kurō).
(1) Owls (Strigidae)
Scops owls (print 107)
and the Ural owl (print 108) were depicted most often. Both are native to
Japan. Scops owls are found in a wide range of habitats, including urban
parks and gardens, while the Ural owl is more common in rural woodland.
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107 Scops owl (Otus sp.) by Hiroko
Yamada, 300 mm x 240 mm, intaglio print entitled hunting
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108 Ural owl (Strix uralensis) by
Takashi Hirose, 150 mm x 200 mm, intaglio print entitled Ural owl
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(2) Geese and Swans
(Anatidae)
Captive swans, imported
originally from Europe (print 109), and domestic geese (print 110) were
depicted most often by gendai artists. The wild geese and ducks depicted so
often in both shin hanga and ukiyo-e bird prints were comparatively rare in
gendai bird prints. This substitution of tame waterfowl for their wild
counterparts in gendai prints suggests that gendai artists were more
familiar with waterfowl found in man-made habitats. Understandably, they
had fewer opportunities to view wild birds than their predecessors due to
the continuing process of habitat conversion from wild to man-made.
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109 Mute swan (Cygnus olor) by Ray
Morimura, 140 mm x 160 mm, woodblock print entitled swan
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110 Domestic goose (Anser cygnoides)
by Kotarō Yoshioka, 245 mm x 275 mm, screenprint entitled family
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(3) Fowl (Phasianidae)
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Captive peafowl (print
111) and domestic fowl (print 112a) appeared often in gendai
bird prints. Presumably the colorful plumage of these birds made them
popular choices, just as they had been for shin hanga and ukiyo-e
artists. The latter also depicted colorful, wild pheasants but gendai
artists rarely drew these pheasants. Perhaps gendai artists were simply
less familiar with wild pheasants whose numbers continue to decline due
to the combined effects of habitat conversion for human use and huntingb.
a To enhance the illusion of a domestic
fowl running rapidly the artist exaggerated the length of its neck and
body. It is the same species drawn more accurately in print 81.
b Brazil (1991)
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111 Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
by Shirō Kasamatsu, 275 mm x 405 mm, woodblock print
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112 Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) by
Kaoru Kawano, 430 mm x 285 mm, woodblock prints
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(4) Cranes (Gruidae)
The red-crowned crane
continued to be a popular choice for bird prints, appearing in more than
one hundred and fifty prints made by gendai artists. Cranes are
particularly impressive with their wings fully extended in flight, as shown
in print 113.
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113 Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis)
by Takeo Honma, 380 mm x 270 mm, screenprint entitled dawn
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(5) Doves (Columbidae)
The dovea was
another domesticated bird species favored by gendai artists. Introduced to
Japan from Europe, it comes in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors thanks
to selective breeding by humans. The pure white form shown in print 114 is
particularly attractive and was chosen most often by gendai artists.
a Also called pigeon. There is no clear
difference between birds called doves versus pigeons.
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114 Dove (Columba livia) by
Kōichi Sakamoto, 350 mm x 270 mm, intaglio print entitled the two
standing
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About a third
(38%) of the species chosen by gendai artists did not appear in either
shin hanga or ukiyo-e bird prints. Gendai artists were likely familiara
with more foreign birds which accounted for almost half (41%) of the
species unique to gendai bird prints. Prints 115 and 116 show two of
these unique foreign birdsb. An artist’s personal preferences
likely affected his or her choice of species and because the number of
gendai artists who made bird prints was far greater than the number of
shin hanga or ukiyo-e bird artists. Gendai artists were bound to select
some new native species as wellc.
a This familiarity most likely came from
direct experience (e.g. international travel) or from new forms of
information technology not available to either shin hanga or ukiyo-e
artists (e.g. television, internet).
b Prints 98, 106, 159 and 212 show additional
examples of foreign birds unique to gendai bird prints.
c Some examples of native species unique
to gendai bird prints are shown on prints 103, 111, 138, 166, 195 and
196
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115 Hermit hummingbird (Phaethornis
sp.) by Shigeki Kuroda, 180 mm x 215 mm, intaglio print entitled
hummingbird and white flowers
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116 Greater flamingo (Phoenicopteros
ruber) by Kazuhiko Sanmonji, 540 mm x 365 mm, woodblock print
entitled blueshore
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Accuracy of Depiction
The level of accuracy
used by gendai artists to draw birds ranged from (1) inaccurate (46%) to
(2) semi-accurate (35%) or (3) accurate (19%). Each of these three levels
of accuracy is considered, in turn, below.
(1) Inaccurate
Some gendai artists
purposely simplified the shapes and (or) colors of their bird subjects to
the extent that it was not possible to recognize even the bird family to
which they belonged. Print 117 is one example. Other artists drew birds
with shapes characteristic of particular families but used too few colors
to allow the bird to be identified at the species level. For example, in
print 118 the birds clearly belong to the gull family (Laridae) but they
lack the bill and leg colors needed to identify the species. Presumably the
goal of gendai artists who drew birds inaccurately (i.e., species not
recognizable) was to be creative and express themselves in a novel way.
This philosophy of art was the hallmark of modern western art whose style a
number of Japanese artists adopted with vigor for bird prints after World War
II. Before then Japanese bird print artists had used a style influenced by
either western realistic art (i.e., shin hanga artists) or Chinese art
(i.e., ukiyo-e artists). Consequently, less than 1% of the bird species in
their prints are unidentifiable.
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117 Unidentified bird by Takeji Asano, 400
mm x 295 mm, woodblock print entitled bird and fruit
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118 Gull (Larus sp.) by Shigeyuki
Ōhashi, 375 mm x 280 mm, screenprint entitled migration two
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(2) Semi-accurate
In some gendai prints
the bird species was identifiable but its shape or color was not completely
true-to-life (i.e., semi-accurate). For example, in print 119 only the
shape and color of the crest of the pair of domestic fowl was accurate. In
print 120 the shape of the little ringed plover was accurate enough for
viewers to identify it but its true colors were reduced to black and white.
These two gendai bird prints are similar to ukiyo-e bird prints in which
the shapes and colors of birds were also drawn only semi-accurately.
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119 Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) by
Taeko Takabe, 270 mm x 265 mm, screenprint
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120 Little ringed plover (Charadrius
dubius) by Gyōjin Murakami, 485 x 330 mm, woodblock print
entitled shore plover
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(3) Accurate
A minority of gendai
artists drew birds accurately (i.e., true-to-life shape and color). These
artists tended to use either intaglio or digital printmaking methodsa
which allowed the fine details of a bird’s external features to be shown
more easily than in woodblock printing. The intaglio print 121 and digital
print 122 below are excellent examples of the high level of accuracy
achievable using these printmaking methods. Presumably these gendai artists
sought to be creative and novel by drawing birds more accurately, instead
of less accurately, than either shin hanga or ukiyo-e artists.
a These methods are explained in the next
section.
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121a Domestic goose (Anser cygnoides)
by Mikio Watanabe, 300 mm x 250 mm, intaglio print entitled goose I
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121b Enlargement of the domestic goose in
print 121a
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122a Common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis)
by Masahiro Tabuki, 320 mm x 235 mm, digital print entitled kingfishers
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122b Enlargement of the common kingfisher in
print 122a
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Methods of
Printmaking
Five different methods
of printmaking were used to produce gendai bird prints; namely, (1)
woodblock (47%), (2) intaglio (26%), (3) screen and stencil (13%), (4)
lithograph (10%) and (5) digital (4%). Each of these five methods is
described belowa using examples of gendai bird prints.
a For additional information about
printmaking techniques see Saff and Sacilotto (1978).
(1) Woodblock
The Japanese method of
woodblock printmaking which had been used to produce all ukiyo-e and shin
hanga bird prints was also employed most often by gendai artists to make
their bird prints. Typically the woodblock was a piece of wood cut
longitudinally from the stem of a tree. However, some gendai artists used
either wood veneer (i.e., plywood) or pieces of wood cut in cross section
instead. Plywood was a modern western invention which had two advantages
over longitudinally-cut woodblocks. First, it was cheaper and second, it
was available in larger sizes which allowed gendai printmakers to make much
larger prints than their shin hanga and ukiyo-e predecessors. For example,
print 123 is more than double the size of the largest shin hanga or ukiyo-e
bird print.
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123 Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) by
Fumio Kitaoka, 925 mm x 635 mm, woodblock print entitled swans on
icefield
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The wood’s grain was very obvious on some pieces
of plywood and gendai artists used this pronounced grain to enhance the
sense of movement in prints where active birds where depicted. Print 124 is
one example.
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124 Duck (Anas sp.) by Susumu
Yamaguchi, 585 mm x 370 mm, woodblock print
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A few gendai printmakers adopted the western
practice of carving designs on a cross section of wood instead of a
longitudinally-cut piece of wood. The surface of a cross section was
harder which allowed more prints to be produced. However, its greater
strength made it more difficult to carve and special tools used by metal
engravers were required for carving. In addition, the size of prints was
limited because tree stem diameter (i.e., cross section) was much less than
stem height (i.e., longitudinal). Wood engraved prints were typically
round (i.e., cross section) instead of square (i.e., longitudinal). Print
125 is an example of a gendai, wood-engraved bird print.
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125 Ural owl (Strix uralensis) by
Kōhō Ōuchi, 180 mm x 180 mm, wood engraved print entitled
blooming
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(2) Intaglio
Intaglio is an Italian
word meaning to cut into. In intaglio printmaking the design was cut into a
piece of metal and the cuts were filled with ink. A piece of paper was then
pushed into the cuts using a mechanical press to transfer the ink to paper.
Cuts could be made using a metal tool or acid or both to create different
artistic effects. The four types of intaglio printmaking used most often to
produce gendai bird prints were mezzotint, etching, aquatint and drypoint
engraving. An example of each is described below.
The Italian word
mezzotint means half tone and this method was used to emphasize tonal
variation in the color of the object depicted. To produce a mezzotint the
entire metal plate was first roughen (i.e., cut into) with a metal tool.
Then portions of the plate were smoothed to reduce the depth of cut to
differing degrees. When ink was added the deepest cuts held the most ink
and would print darkest. In print 126 the black background had the deepest
cuts and the whitish shades of the bird’s image had the shallowest cuts. If
more than one color of ink was needed, as in print 127, then an additional
metal plate was prepared for each color.
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126 Ural owl (Strix uralensis) by
Tadashi Ikai, 195 mm x 225 mm, intaglio print entitled owl A
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127 Japanese white-eye (Zosterops
japonicus) by Tadashi Ikai, 205 mm x 235 mm, intaglio print entitled
Japanese white-eye C
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Etching is an
intaglio printing method in which acid was used to create cuts in a metal
plate. First the plate was entirely coated with an acid-resistant
substance. Next, areas to be cut were traced onto the plate to remove
portions of the acid-resistance substance. Then the plate was dipped into
an acid bath to produce the cuts. Prints 128 and 129 are examples of
single-color and multi-color etchings, respectively. These prints show much
less tonal variation than the mezzotints above. Greater tonal variation
could be achieved if the acid-resistant substance was sprayed onto the
metal plate to provide only partial coverage. The term aquatint is used
instead of etching when the plate was sprayed instead of coated. In print
130 this aquatint technique was used to depict the tree leaves at the top
of the print. The black lines in print 130 were drawn using drypoint
engraving. In drypoint engraving a sharp needle (i.e., dry point) was used
to cut the lines of the design into a metal plate. The black lines in print
131 were also produced using drypoint engraving while the areas of red,
yellow and blue color were created by etching.
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128 Dusky thrush (Turdus naumanni) by
Takeshi Nakai, 135 mm x 115 mm, intaglio print
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129 Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) by
Tomiko Matsuno, 195 mm x 195 mm, intaglio print
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130 Domestic goose (Anser cygnoides)
by Kenji Ushiku, 315 mm x 495 mm, intaglio print entitled in the forest Y
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131 Unidentified bird by Masuo Ikeda, 285 mm
x 380 mm, intaglio print entitled happy bird
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(3) Screen and stencil
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In this method of
printmaking a template of the design was first made using either a screen
or a stencil. The screen template was typically a piece of mesh fabric
(e.g., silk, polyester), or less often a piece of porous paper, which was
covered with a non-porous substance except in areas of the design. The
stencil template was usually a piece of stiff paper into which holes were
cut to reveal the design. To make a print the template was placed on top
of a piece of paper and ink was applied. The ink only passed through
areas of the screen not covered by the non-porous substance or through
holes in the stencil to reproduce the design on the paper below. For
multi-colored prints multiple templates were made, one for each color.
For almost all gendai bird prints a screen was used instead of a stencil.
Mesh screenprints (e.g., print 132) often featured strongly graded colora
while color was applied more uniformly on paper screenprints (e.g.,
print 133). Print 134 is one of the very few gendai stencil bird prints.
a Strongly graded color was produced by
placing ink at one end of the mesh screen and drawing it to the other end
of the screen using a squeegee. The color became progressively lightly as
the quantity of ink decreased.
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132 Dove (Columba sp.) by Kōzō
Inoue, 120 mm x 170 mm, screenprint
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133 Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
by Hiroshi Kabe, 195 mm x 270 mm, screenprint entitled two
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134 Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) by
Sadao Watanabe, 225 mm x 330 mm, stencil print
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(4) Lithograph
To make a lithograph the
design was first drawn on the surface of a smooth slab of limestonea
using a greasy substance that would readily absorb ink. Ink was then added
and a piece of paper was placed on top of the inked surface. Finally,
pressure was applied using a mechanical press to transfer the ink to paper.
To make a multi-colored print this process was repeated using a different
stone slab for each ink color. Gendai artists made about equal numbers of
single-color lithographs (print 135) and multi-color lithographs (prints
136, 137) featuring birds.
a A light-weight aluminum plate was
sometimes used instead of a heavy limestone slab.
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135 Unidentified bird by Kiyoshi Awazu, 280
mm x 415 mm, lithograph entitled blue bird
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136 Dove (Columba sp.) by Gikō
Hayakawa, 260 mm x 330 mm, lithograph entitled in the green forest
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137 Hummingbird (Family Trochilidae) by
Shōmei Yoh, 500 mm x 260 mm, lithograph entitled the elephant’s
dream garden
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(5) Digital
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In digital printmaking
the design was first created using a drawing program that was written for
the digital computer. This design was then sent electronically to a
mechanical printing device which made a paper copy of the digital design
by adding ink to paper.
Digital
printmakers depicted birds in two very different ways. Some drew birds
very accurately as in print 138. Others combined their imagination with
the power of digital technology to create novel images of birds. For
example, in print 139 the bird’s feather pattern was simplified and the
color of each feather was graded so strongly that it looks more three
dimensional than in true life.
a Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator
were the two drawing programs used most often to produce digital, gendai
bird prints.
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138 Water pipit (Anthus spinoletta)
by Masahiro Tabuki, 330 mm x 485 mm, digital print
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139 Northern pintail duck (Anas acuta)
by Hiromitsu Sakai, 425 mm x 295 mm, digital print
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214a
Gray wagtail (Motacilla cinerea) by Akira Fujie, 375 mm x 265 mm,
intaglio print entitled wagtail
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214b
Enlargement of the picture portion of print 214a
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